New Testament Commentaries by Michael Ramsay

[1] The Expositor's Bible Commentary, Pradis CD-ROM:Leviticus/Exposition of Leviticus/IX. Laws of Land Use (25:1-55), Book Version: 4.0.2

[2] Walter C. Kaiser, “Leviticus,” in The New Interpreter’s Bible, Volume 3, ed. Leander E. Keck. (Nashville, Tenn: Abingdon Press, 1999), 1170

[3] The Expositor's Bible Commentary, Pradis CD-ROM:Leviticus/Introduction to Leviticus/Date and Authorship of Leviticus/The documentary hypothesis of Leviticus, Book Version: 4.0.2 – There is a discussion here of a number of the dating theories of Leviticus

[4] The Expositor's Bible Commentary, Pradis CD-ROM:Leviticus/Introduction to Leviticus/Date and Authorship of Leviticus/Other views of Leviticus, Book Version: 4.0.2

[5] Dr. Burke’s address to Studies in the Pentateuch class at Booth College, Winnipeg, MB, Nov. 8, 2006

[6] Richard H. Lowrey, Sabbath and Jubilee (St Louis Missouri: Choice Press, 2000), 57

[7] John E. Hartley, “Leviticus,” in Word Bible Commentary, Volume 4, eds. David A. Hubbard and Glenn W. Barker. (Dallas Texas: Word Books, 1992), 422.

[9] E.W. Bullinger, Number in Scripture. (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Kregal Publications, 1967), 158.

[10] John E. Hartley, p. 434

[11] Gerhard F. Hasel, “Sabbath,” in The Anchor Bible Dictionary: Volume 5, ed. David Noel Freedman, 1^st ed. (New York, New York: Doubleday, 1992), 857.

[13] Patrick D. Miller Jr., “The Place of the Decalogue in the Old Testament and Its Law,” Interpretation: A Journal of Bible and Theology 43 (1989): 236.

[15] The Expositor's Bible Commentary, Pradis CD-ROM:Leviticus/Exposition of Leviticus/IX. Laws of Land Use (25:1-55)/A. The Sabbatical Year (25:1-7), Book Version: 4.0.2

[16] Wright, Christopher J.H. “Sabbatical Year,” in The Anchor Bible Dictionary: Volume 5, edited by David Noel Freedman, 1^st ed. (New York, New Nork: Doubleday, 1992),857.

[17] The Expositor's Bible Commentary, Pradis CD-ROM:Leviticus/Exposition of Leviticus/IX. Laws of Land Use (25:1-55)/A. The Sabbatical Year (25:1-7), Book Version: 4.0.2

[18] Walter C. Kaiser, p.1170.

[19] Lawrence H. Shiffman, “Sabbatical Year,” in Harper’s Bible Dictionary, ed. Paul J. Achtemeier, Th.D., 1^st ed. (New York, New York: Harper & Row, 1985), 889.

[20] John E. Hartley, p. 427.

[21] Merrill F. Unger, “Festivals,” in Unger’s Bible Dictionary, ed. Merrill F. Unger, 3^rd ed. (Chicago, Ill.: Moody Press, 1981), 358.

[22] The Expositor's Bible Commentary, Pradis CD-ROM:Leviticus/Exposition of Leviticus/IX. Laws of Land Use (25:1-55), Book Version: 4.0.2

[23] F. Ross Kinsler, “Leviticus 25,” Interpretation 53, no. 4 (1999): 396.

Amos 3:1-2: …therefore I will punish you…

Presented to William and Catherine Booth College (Winter 2006)

Hear this word that the Lord has spoken against you, O people of Israel, against the whole family that I brought up out of the land of Egypt: You only have I known of all the families of the earth; therefore I will punish you for all your iniquities - Amos 3:1-2

There are a number of identifiable sections in Amos. Three major ones have been referred to as the Oracles against the Nations, the Words, and the Visions. Karl Moller identifies Chapters 3 and 4 as a part of the Words section.[1] Within this Words section, “it is useful to deal with chapters 3-4 as a unit…even though the elements within the unit are loosely connected with one another, it does have a clear beginning and end.”[2] That being said, Chapter 3 can be designated as a significant subsection within the Words section and verses 1 and 2 of Chapter 3 set the stage for both the sub-section and the section. They also serve to convey a message that is of great significance to Amos’ prophecy. Some have even argued 3:2 to be the theme statement of the entire book.[3] Given this significance, it is these verses - taking into account the theme, textual context, time and life of Amos - which I will examine most closely here.

Genre and Theme.

Chapter 3 most likely contains both elements of poetry (cf. 3:3-8) and prose (cf. 3:12). However, “the entire oracle may be prose; v. 1 is unquestionably so, and v.2, being purely synthetic in parallelism, if parallelistic at all, has a rather prosaic word order and contains the (prosaic) article ta twice;”[4] therefore it may or may not be prose. Whether prose or poetry, 3:2 stylistically serves as a solid transition to the following verses, having at the very least an appearance of a poetic structure similar to that of 3:3-8.

In the opening verses of Chapter 3, the introductory formula of summons to listen (cf. Gen 4:23, 49:2; Exod 18:19; Deut 4:1; 6:4; etc.) denotes an important message is coming. A principle, an issue, a teaching, or a truth is about to be revealed to not only the ten northern tribes of the northern monarchy but to the entire family of the exodus.[5]

The book of Amos is a prophetic warning that encompasses both nations but is specifically directed at King Jeroboam II and the leaders of Israel in “an attempt to persuade its hearers or readers to learn from the failure of the prophet’s original audience to respond appropriately to his message.”[6] Chapter 3 introduces the central theme of the book. It focuses on judgement: The aim of Chapter 3 primarily is to underline that Yahweh is indeed going to punish Israel for her sins.[7] As will be shown, this stage is set very well by 3:1-2.

Historical Context.

Amos was among the first of the prophetic books to be written. It was written “in the days of King Uzziah of Judah and in the days of King Jeroboam son of Joash of Israel, two years before the earthquake (1:1). Because of this detail, historians can date it with some degree of certainty; it dates between 760 and 750 BCE.[8]

This was during Asshurnirai’s (753-745 BCE) reign in Assyria. Assyria was struggling to dominate the region;[9] shortly after Amos’ prophecy, Tilglath-Pileser III ascended the Assyrian throne (745 BCE) and by 740 he had fully implemented a policy of military expansion. Israel itself was paying him tribute by 738 and in 722 Samaria fell to the Assyrians under Sargon II.[10]

In Israel, circa 750, however, trade and commerce still flourished. Religion was popular and this was a generation from whom the ever-present threat of military attack had been removed; this resulted in a demand for luxury items.[11] However, the rich were getting richer and the poor were becoming poorer.[12] In Amos’ day, Samaria was a city whose great wealth was controlled by and for an upper class few who exploited the masses who were kept in check by fear.[13]

Amos, the Person.

Amos, himself, was “no prophet, nor a prophet’s son; but…a herdsman, and a dresser of sycamore trees (7:14).” He came from “among the shepherds of Tekoa (1:1).” There is some controversy, however as to what this means. “Amos may have been: (a) a simple Judean shepherd; (b) a well-to-do and prominent citizen, perhaps connected with the Jerusalem Temple; or even (c) a politically important citizen of the northern kingdom. It is recorded in Amos 1:2 that he is from ‘among the shepherd of Tekoa.’”[14] This is interesting also since Tekoa is in the southern kingdom of Judah rather than in the northern kingdom where he prophesied for these two years. It is also interesting that the sycamore-fig did not actually grow in Tekoa. This has led some scholars to believe that Amos was not a native Tekoan, but rather a northern Israelite who had been exiled to Judah.[15]

Amos Chapters 1 and 2

After a brief introduction of the prophet Amos (1:1-2), the work begins with a condemnation of the surrounding nations. The phrase that is used to launch into the rebuke is, “Thus says the LORD: for three transgressions of Damascus, and for four, I will not revoke the punishment… (1:3).” This phrase appears again for the condemnation of each of the surrounding nations: Aram, Gaza, Tyre, Edom, the Ammonites.

He continues with the same formula in Chapter 2 to rebuke Israel's kindred nations: Moab and Judah. Amos brings this phrase (2:6) and all its implications to bear on Israel. He lists the people’s sins, “you made the Nazirites drink wine, and commanded the prophets, saying, “you shall not prophesy (2:12)” and then what the Lord has done for them as a people, “I destroyed the Amorite before them, whose height was like the height of cedars, and who was as strong as oaks; I destroyed his fruit above, and his roots beneath. Also I brought you up out of the land of Egypt, and led you forty years in the wilderness, to possess the land of the Amorite. And I raised up some of your children to be prophets and some of your youths to be Nazirites (2:9-11).” Then God, through Amos, speaks of the punishment that Israel will receive: “I will press you down in your place, just as a cart presses down when it is full of sheaves. Flight shall perish from the swift, and the strong shall not retain their strength, nor shall the mighty save their lives; those who handle the bow shall not stand, and those who are swift of foot shall not save themselves, nor shall those who ride horses save their lives; and those who are stout of heart among the mighty shall flee away naked in that day (2:13-16).”

Amos Chapter 3.

It is in this context that Chapter 3 opens with “Hear this word that the Lord has spoken against you.” Karl Moller makes the case that as Chapter 3 is “bracketed by two declarations of divine punishment, each of which is introduced by sim’u (iii 1, 13) and uses the key word pdq to refer to Yahweh’s judgement…that the primary aim of Am. iii is to underline that Yahweh is indeed going to punish Israel for her sins.”[16]

Chapter 3 can be seen as a transition between chapters one and two and the rest of the book. It can be broken into three sub-sections: the first states that Amos’ message is from God and that he must proclaim it (3-8); the second asserts that the divine judgement is justified (9-11); the third (12-15) claims that after the devastating destruction, there will be no hope for survival.[17] These sections and the transition are introduced by the key, pivotal verses: verses one and two.

Amos 3:1-2.

In order to fully understand Chapter 3, verses 1 and 2 need to be comprehended since these verses give the listener/reader the first clear indication of the direction Amos’ prophecy is going to take. Chapter three opens up with “Hear this word that the Lord has spoken against you, O people of Israel, against the whole family that I brought up out of the land of Egypt: You only have I known of all the families of the earth; therefore I will punish you for all your iniquities.”

First, as was already stated, it must be understood that this passage is not merely referring to the country of Israel. It is referring to the ‘house of Israel,’ which includes Judah. It however is spoken in Israel as a direct warning for the King.

It should be also noted that, the word translated as ‘against’ in verses 1 and 2 is a neutral term in Hebrew and Donald Gowen notes “the verb translated ‘punish’ (paqad) can be used of either favourable or unfavourable activity, depending on the situation.”[18] As such it could be translated as “hold you accountable for” in this context. However, this is the only place where Amos uses the word ‘iniquity’ (awon); “Awon seems to be the darkest of the ‘sin’ words in Hebrew.”[19]

It is worth here exploring further the meanings of paqad and awon. paqad, which has been rendered ‘punish’ in both the NIV and NRSV translations, can have various other meanings such as to hold to account, number, reckon, visit, or appoint; however, “the basic meaning is to exercise oversight over a subordinate, either in the form of inspecting or of taking action to cause a considerable change in the circumstances of the subordinate, either for the better or for the worse. It has been said of this verb, which occurs more than 300 times in the OT: ‘there is probably no other Hebrew verb that has caused translators as much trouble.”[20]

The fact that there is ambiguity in the interpretation of paqad is significant here because when read in conjunction with the neutral ‘against,’ the hearer or reader of these words may or may have not been alerted to this prophecy’s seriousness, but it would have necessarily provoked a greater level of attention. Israel has heard many prophecies to this point in its history concerning its destruction, all of which have ended in Israel’s redemption. As these words in 3:2 were being spoken, it would become evident that one should not necessarily assign so quickly a benevolent or -more accurately and typically- a restorative interpretation here to paqad, the chapter, or the prophecy of Amos. This would be an early clue (though not an unmistakeable one by any means) that the anticipated redemption may not be present in Amos’ message; this prophecy will not necessarily end well for Israel and, as the impact of these verses is fully appreciated or at least comprehended, this would certainly be shocking to the audience.

Another key term for understanding the full implications for these verses, this chapter, and Amos’ prophesy, in light of the aforementioned, is awon, which is often rendered ‘sin’ or ‘iniquity.’ It is a profoundly religious term that is usually used to refer to moral guilt or iniquity before God that comes from deliberate wrongdoing. It can also refer to punishment, which is consequent upon sin.[21] It is rarely used to refer to guilt before a human (cf. 1 Sam. 20:1; 8 25:24). ‘Metonymic usages of the term illustrate clearly the relationship in Hebrew thought between ‘sin’ and resultant ‘guilt’ and ‘punishment,’ since awon may denote any of these three senses (or all three meanings) in a single passage.[22]

Also important to understand is the word yada. The verb yd^c -‘to perceive, know’ - encompasses a broad semantic scope in its Old Testament usage. It can refer to ‘sensory awareness of objects and circumstances in one’s environment attained through involvement with them and through the information of others;’ describe results of investigation; or ‘the knowledge that results from the realization, experience, and perception that one can learn and transmit;’ refer to the capacity for ethical decision or shape one’s life through autonomous decision; sexual experience; or practical wisdom.[23]

In 3:2, yada is used to indicate the special relationship between Yahweh and Israel or its election to service.[24] “The statement ‘you only have I chosen [yada, ‘known’] of all the families of the earth’ establishes Israel’s elective privilege. The word yada bears a special sense of intimacy. Jeremiah 1:5 uses yada in a similar way, describing God’s knowing and consecrating Jeremiah even before his birth. Thus the word connotes more than simple awareness or acknowledgment. It includes the idea of God’s sovereign activity whereby the object of that knowledge is set apart or chosen for a divine purpose. Such was the case with Israel.”[25] “In Amos 3:2, one should not overlook the detrimental consequence – surprising for people – which is linked here to the intimate, exclusive relationship (contested altogether in Amos 9:7) between Yahweh and Israel in which the people imagines itself secure: Israel will also be held accountable in an exceptional manner for its guilt.”[26]

I find it very interesting that, even in the context of listing the punishments of all the surrounding nations that did not have the favoured status of Israel in the Lord's eyes, Amos states (3:2), “you only have I known of all the families of the earth; therefore I will punish you for all your iniquities.” It caused me to wonder, were not Aram, Gaza, Tyre, Edom, and the Ammonites, whom He did not know in this same sense, all being punished for their iniquities as well? As Israel seems to be receiving the same punishment as her neighbours, why would its special relationship to Yahweh be noted in this context?

The Sinai tradition made it clear that “the consequences of rejecting the relationship established by God were a most serious matter. ‘Therefore I will punish you for all your iniquities’ (v.2). This would not seem to be a radically new idea. Amos’ words show that the popular religion of his day, however, seems to have emphasized the election concept.”[27] Therefore this statement must have aroused the audience’s curiosity and attracted attention.[28] It is precisely because of Israel’s favoured status that it will be punished as severely as is laid out in the rest of the book. As they are the elect, having a special covenant relationship with God and are ‘known of all the families of the earth,’ they receive the direct and the longest rebuke of the nations. “Amos affirmed the historical election of Israel (3:2). But he inveighed against the perverted concept of election popularly held in his day - that is, the irrevocable commitment of Yahweh to the nation. Their election alone did not guarantee national blessing, for the sovereign Lord had promised that they would be his ‘treasured possession’ if they obeyed him and kept his covenant (Exod 19:5). Amos, more than any other prophet, urged the responsibility of elective privilege.”[29]

How then does this fit into the context of the preceding verses in Chapter 2: 6-16? This is where the oracle against Israel actually begins. Is there anything special about this section (3:1-2) given that context? Oracles against Israel are not by any means unheard of in Biblical literature (cf. Lamentations 4; Ezekiel 21,22; Joel 1-2:10). God calls Israel to repentance through his prophets many times in the Hebrew Bible. There are instances of Israel being called to task and then the Lord relenting (cf. Lamentations 4:22; Ezekiel 34; Joel 2:18ff) precisely because He is their God and they are His people.

For an audience that has heard this same prophetic formula before, 2:6 through 3:1 must not have stood out particularly from the aforementioned prophecies of which they would have been familiar. The beginning of 3:2 may have caused them to anticipate the happy ending to which they had become accustomed of God showing mercy precisely because ‘you only have I known of all the families of the earth.’ Up to this point in the book, this message must have sounded very familiar to them. It is easy to not pay too close attention to a story when you believe that you know the ending, particularly when you are convinced that everything will be all right. The ‘therefore’ to the listener must have elicited a sense of complacency then for this word would seem to signify the end of the bad news and the beginning of the blessings and promises that will be fulfilled when Israel does eventually return to Yahweh.

This is not what happens though. What happens is that Israel’s condemnation is prolonged and even intensifies. This must have caused the listener to take note. It would compel those hearing to consider the earlier warning of 2:6 with a renewed interest. It was here that Israel was first addressed in exactly the same way as her rivals, Aram, Gaza, Tyre, Edom, and the Ammonites, with the phrase ‘for three sins of Israel, even for four, I will not turn back my wrath.’

What, if a move to a more comforting message was expected in 3:2, must have seemed purely formulaic at first, would now serve to emphasize to the listener that the message is that their ‘election’ will not save them from God’s wrath anymore that their rivals’ non-election. 3:2b can mean that either Israel’s ‘election’ does not equal protection from God’s wrath or that its election and protection are conditional upon Israel upholding its part of the covenantal relationship. Either way, Israel’s election in and of itself is no protection from the wrath of God (cf. Romans 2).

The Conclusion in Greater Context of Chapter 3 and the Book of Amos.

This conclusion is born out in the rest of the chapter. There is a proclamation for Ashod of the Philistines and for Egypt to “assemble yourselves on Mount Samaria, and see what great tumults are within it, and what oppressions are in its midst (3:9).” As the fate of the other nations is a warning to Israel (Chapters 1,2), so Israel is a warning to the other nations. The implication is that these ancient adversaries of Israel would not miss the point of the prophecy; “even the heathen peoples, such as the Philistines and the Egyptians would confirm the need for divine judgement.”[30] The Lord will punish Israel: “An adversary shall surround the land, and strip you of your defence; and your strongholds shall be plundered” (3:11) and your “great houses shall come to and end” (3:15). Thus Chapter 3 concludes the same way it began, in 3:1-2, with judgement – and more, a final ‘end’ judgement.

Israel must prepare to meet the Lord, the God of Hosts who “forms the mountains, creates the wind, reveals his thoughts to mortals, makes the morning darkness, and treads on the heights of the earth.” (4:13). God has done so much for them, they have not repented and as a result, the worst is yet to come. “Amos knows the next act will be the death of Israel. He gives no hint that he knows of resurrection to follow.”[31] “There is no future for the nation of Israel,”[32] for ‘you only have I known of all the families of the earth; therefore I will punish you for all your iniquities.’

As much as I would like to conclude my thoughts here, I cannot. I have to acknowledge the tension that stands at the conclusion of Amos. Scholars are not in complete agreement. There are those who argue that after many chapters of judgement, Chapter 9 points to restoration: “I will restore the fortunes of my people Israel, and they shall rebuild the ruined cities and inhabit them; they shall plant vineyards and drink their wine, and they shall make gardens and eat their fruit. I will plant them upon their land, and they shall never again be plucked up out of the land that I have given them, says the Lord your God (9:14-15).” While this may accurately reflect Amos’ message, it is most definitely in tension with the rest of the prophecy and certainly conflicts with the intent expressed in Chapter 3 as introduced by its first and second verses, which we have examined here.

That tension being acknowledged, the conclusion of the book of Amos is seemingly one of restoration. Thomas E. McComiskey states that, “To deny a message of hope in Amos removes him from the mainstream of eighth-century prophetic thought, where the concept of doom is often followed by hope (Isa 3:1-4:1; cf. 4:2-6; 8:16-22; cf. 9:1-7; Mic 2:1-11; cf. 2:12-13; 5:1; cf. 5:2-4).”[33] This is an important teaching point. Whatever the intent of the prophet himself, the book of Amos ends on a note of apparent restoration or reconciliation. Israel was faithless but God is faithful and they can be restored. This is an important theological notion. We can be reconciled with God. Christ died for that purpose. Christ has ushered in the new covenant (cf. Lk 22:20; 1 Cor 11:25; 2 Cor 3:6; Heb 8, 9, 12:24), which is written on our hearts (Jer 31:31-34; Ro 2); therefore, repentance (2:4), blessing (Gen 12:3), justification (2:13), and righteousness (2:13) await those ‘doers of the law’ which is now written on their hearts.[34] In Christ we are a new creation (2 Cor 5:17). So well verses one and two of chapter three and the prophet himself may have meant to convey an end to the covenant relationship (cf. Amos 3:15), the book of Amos does point to the hope of a future restoration.

Return to Index

[1] Karl Moller. “‘Hear This Word Against You’: a Fresh Look at the Arrangement and the Rhetorical Strategy of the Book of Amos,” Vetus Testamentum 50, no. 4 (2000): 500.

[2] Donald E. Gowan, Amos. (NIB 7. Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon Press, 1996), 368.

[3] but cf. Donald E. Gowan, 369, for a different opinion. At the least, however, it is a significant verse that certainly embodies the major thrust of the prophecy. Taken in the context of the rest of chapter 3 (particularly 3:12), I think the argument that it addresses a key component of the theme of Amos is valid and as such its key importance should not be overlooked.

[4] Douglas Stuart, Amos. (Word Biblical Commentary 31. Waco, Texas: Word Books, 1987), 321.

[5] Ibid.

[6] Karl Moller. “‘Hear This Word Against You’: a Fresh Look at the Arrangement and the Rhetorical Strategy of the Book of Amos,” Vetus Testamentum 50, no. 4 (2000): 516.

[7] Ibid., 502.

[8] Ibid., 343.

[9] Willy Schottroff, “The Prophet Amos: A Socio-Historical Assessment of His Ministry.” In God of the Lowly: Socio-Historical Interpretations of the Bible, edited by Willy Schottroff and Wolfgang Stegemann. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1984.

[10] Donald E. Gowan, p. 339.

[11] Roland Kenneth Harrison. Introduction to the Old Testament. (Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1977), 885.

[12] John H. Tullock. The Old Testament Story, 7^th ed. (Revised by M. McEntire; Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2006), 192.

[13] Douglas Stuart. p. 330.

[14] Donald E. Gowan, p. 340.

[15] Roland Kenneth Harrison. p. 884.

[16] Karl Moller, p. 502.

[17] Ibid., p. 506.

[18] Donald E. Gowan, p. 369.

[19] Ibid.

[20] Victor P. Hamilton, “paqad” in The Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament: Volume 2 ed. R. Laird Harris, 2^nd ed. (Chicago, Ill.: Moody Press, 1981), 731.

[21] BA Milne and J Murray, “Sin,” in New Bible Dictionary. ed. JD Douglas. 3^rd ed. (Downers Grove, Illinois, Intervarsity Press, 1996), 1105.

[22] Robin C. Cover, “Sin, Sinners (Old Testament),” in The Anchor Bible Dictionary, Volume 6. ed. David Noel Freedman, 1^st ed. (New York, New York: Doubleday, 1992), 32.

[23] Willy Schottroff, “To Perceive, To Know,” in Theological Lexicon of the Old Testament, Volume 3 eds. Ernst Jenni and Claus Westermann (Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Publishers, 1997), 511-514.

[24] G. Johannes Botterweck. “yada” in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Volume 5.– eds. G. Johannes Botterweck and Helmer Ringgren Translated by David Green. (Grand Rapids Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1986), 468.

[25] Thomas E. McComiskey, The Expositor's Bible Commentary. Pradis CD-ROM:Amos/Exposition of Amos/III. The Prophetic Oracles (1:3-6:14)/B. Oracles of Judgment Against Israel (2:6-6:14)/2. A lesson based on cause and effect (3:1-12), Book Version: 4.0.2

[26] Willy Schottroff, “To Perceive, To Know,” p. 516.

[27] Donald E. Gowan, p. 369.

[28] Karl Moller, p. 502.

[29] Thomas E. McComiskey, The Expositor's Bible Commentary, Pradis CD-ROM:Amos/Introduction to Amos/Theological Values of Amos/The doctrine of election in Amos, Book Version: 4.0.2

[30] Karl Moller, p. 505.

[31] Donald E. Gowan, p. 383.

[32] Ibid., 347.

[33] Thomas E. McComiskey, The Expositor's Bible Commentary, Pradis CD-ROM:Amos/Introduction to Amos/Unity of Amos, Book Version: 4.0.2

[34] See also Acts 15:12-21, where Amos Chapter 9 is quoted in relationship specifically to the Gentiles.

[1] Karl Moller. “‘Hear This Word Against You’: a Fresh Look at the Arrangement and the Rhetorical Strategy of the Book of Amos,” Vetus Testamentum 50, no. 4 (2000): 500.

[3] Donald E. Gowan, Amos. (TNIB 7. Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon Press, 1996), 368

[6] Will Durant. Our Oriental Heritage. (New York, NY: Simon and Schuster, 1935), 267.

[7] Donald E. Gowan, Amos. (TNIB 7. Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon Press, 1996), 339.

[8] The Timechart of Biblical History. (Chippenham, England: The Third Millennium Press, 2003), 1.

[10] Roland Kenneth Harrison. Introduction to the Old Testament. (Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1977), 885.

[12] John H. Tullock. The Old Testament Story, 7^th ed. (Revised by M. McEntire; Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2006), 192.

[13] Douglas Stuart. Amos. (WBC 31: Waco, Texas: Word Books, 1987), 330.

[14] Donald E. Gowan, Amos. (TNIB 7. Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon Press, 1996), 340.

[15] Roland Kenneth Harrison. Introduction to the Old Testament. (Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1977), 884.

[16] Karl Moller. “‘Hear This Word Against You’: a Fresh Look at the Arrangement and the Rhetorical Strategy of the Book of Amos,” Vetus Testamentum 50, no. 4 (2000): 516.

[19] Donald E. Gowan, Amos. (TNIB 7. Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon Press, 1996), 369.

[21] Karl Moller. “‘Hear This Word Against You’: a Fresh Look at the Arrangement and the Rhetorical Strategy of the Book of Amos,” Vetus Testamentum 50, no. 4 (2000): 506.

[22] Donald E. Gowan, Amos. (TNIB 7. Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon Press, 1996), 369.

[23] Karl Moller. “‘Hear This Word Against You’: a Fresh Look at the Arrangement and the Rhetorical Strategy of the Book of Amos,” Vetus Testamentum 50, no. 4 (2000): 502.

[24] Douglas Stuart. Amos. (WBC 31: Waco, Texas: Word Books, 1987), 322. Douglas Stuart calls this sub-section ‘a list of inseparables’

[25] Douglas Stuart. Amos. (WBC 31: Waco, Texas: Word Books, 1987), 324.

[29] Karl Moller. “‘Hear This Word Against You’: a Fresh Look at the Arrangement and the Rhetorical Strategy of the Book of Amos,” Vetus Testamentum 50, no. 4 (2000): 505.

[30] Douglas Stuart. Amos. (WBC 31: Waco, Texas: Word Books, 1987), 332.

[31] Donald E. Gowan, Amos. (TNIB 7. Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon Press, 1996), 376.

[33] Douglas Stuart. Amos. (WBC 31: Waco, Texas: Word Books, 1987), 332

[35] Douglas Stuart. Amos. (WBC 31: Waco, Texas: Word Books, 1987), 337.

[38] Donald E. Gowan, Amos. (TNIB 7. Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon Press, 1996), 368.

[39] Douglas Stuart. Amos. (WBC 31: Waco, Texas: Word Books, 1987), 333.

[41] Douglas Stuart. Amos. (WBC 31: Waco, Texas: Word Books, 1987), 338.

[42] Donald E. Gowan, Amos. (TNIB 7. Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon Press, 1996), 345.

[43] Douglas Stuart. Amos. (WBC 31: Waco, Texas: Word Books, 1987), 340.

[44] Donald E. Gowan, Amos. (TNIB 7. Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon Press, 1996), 383.

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	Old Testament Commentaries by Michael Ramsay
	1. Leviticus 25:1-23: the Land Shall Observe a Sabbath 2. Amos 3:1-2: ...therefore I will punish you... 3. Amos 3-4
	Leviticus 25 1-23 in the Context of the Holiness Code: The Land Shall Observe a Sabbath. (view Scriptures) *Presented to William and Catherine Booth College (Fall 2006)* Sabbath days, sabbatical years and years of jubilee are all significant to the LORD. Chapter 25 of Leviticus deals specifically with the year of jubilee and the sabbath year: “the Lord instituted a land reform of return to the old homestead every fifty years. Actually, the Jubilee was one of the first land reforms known in history…The sabbatical year likewise was a humane and very advanced social program. Imagine all debts forgiven and slaves released every seven years! Ingrained into Israel's laws and faith was a concern for the poor and unfortunate. It is observable in many of the laws already noticed and is made most emphatic in this chapter [25].”[1] While God’s concern for the poor and the needy is marked throughout scripture, it is notable that “Leviticus 25 is indeed unique among all the chapters of the Torah, for it is the only chapter that deals with the subject of land tenure in ancient Israel.”[2] Through a brief examination of relevant background, contextual, historical, and rhetorical evidence and a close examination of Leviticus 25:1-23, I will discuss the significance of the sabbatical year and the year of jubilee as it relates to the land. I assert that the land reform of the sabbatical year and the year of jubilee are of great importance to God due to his concern for the land itself. *Background Information - Dating of Leviticus* The dating of Leviticus is somewhat controversial. There are a number of theories that have been presented many of which have been developed from Wellhausen’s Documentary Theory which “argued that there was a J document written about 850 B.C., an E document from 750 B.C., a D document (largely Deuteronomy) written in 621 B.C., and a P document (giving priestly material) from 450 B.C. This JEDP hypothesis supposed that these documents were interwoven by various redactors and became a unit after 450 B.C.”[3] Leviticus 25 in these theories is assigned to the P Period. However, there is still the “view that Leviticus as a unified whole [was] given by Moses [which] can be traced back to the Chronicler… as early as 400 B.C. The tradition of Israel with one voice declares that the ritual laws of Leviticus—and the other Pentateuchal material as well—were given by God through Moses.”[4] Leviticus is assigned to the time which the Israelite community spent by Mount Sinai, the mountain of God, after they left Egypt. It is at this point when God’s sign to Moses, as recorded in Exodus 3:11-12, that He himself sent Moses to Pharaoh is fully realised. Reference to this time is made in Exodus and Deuteronomy. Besides the book of Leviticus in its entirety, the first 10 chapters of Numbers are assigned to this time and location as well.[5] *Significant Identifiable Sections and Relevant Contextual Information.* The Holiness Code (Lev. 17-27) comprises by far the largest section of Leviticus and “the sabbath-year and jubilee laws form a coherent literary unit with the Holiness Code (Lev. 25-26);”[6] The Holiness Code begins with the phrase “The LORD spoke to Moses.” This is repeated in 18:1; 19:1; 20:1; 21:1, 16; 22:1, 17, 26; 23:1, 9, 23, 26, 33, 24:1, 13; 25:1; 27:1. Each time that it is repeated seems to represent a self-contained section of the Holiness Code; this coherent unit (Ch. 25-26) is contained within the utterances of “The LORD spoke to Moses” recorded in 25:1 and in 27:1. Within this unit, Leviticus 25 itself is organized into three distinct sections: verses 39-55 addresses the redemption of slaves, verses 23-38 speak about the redemption of property and 1-22 (and 23) addresses the sabbatical year and jubilee as it affects the land itself. This can be further divided into sub-sections “concerning the sabbatical year (vv 2a-7) [and those] concerning the year of jubilee;”[7] however “the two units of this section are thus closely linked, for the jubilee is a high sabbatical year.”[8] *Verses 1-2: the Significance of the Divine Command for the Land Itself to Observe a Sabbath.* As has been stated, the larger unit of Chapters 25 and 26 is framed by the Divine command. Leviticus 25 begins by stating the direct authority of God: “The Lord spoke to Moses on Mount Sinai, saying: Speak to the people of Israel and say to them: When you enter the land that I am giving you, the land shall observe a sabbath for the Lord (vv.1-2).” This is not an insignificant matter. The Lord commands this directly. The conclusion of the 25^th chapter echoes this authority of behind this section with the phrase “…I am the LORD your God (v.55).” And again in 26:2, it states that “you shall keep my sabbaths and reverence for my sanctuary: I am the Lord.” In the verses 14-23, the consequences for failing to obey God’s commands are specified and verse 23, in particular, claims that if the Israelites are negligent in regard to the sabbatical year, “…the land shall be deserted by them, and enjoy its sabbath years by lying desolate without them, while they make amends for their iniquity:” They will be exiled and the land will enjoy its sabbath unto the LORD. It is emphasized here that this command has the full authority of coming directly from the LORD, Himself. Verses 3-4, 8: a Discussion of Seven (Sheba) Verses 3-4, in the first section of this passage, speak to working for six years and resting on the seventh. This should resonate with the reader who will recall that, “…on the seventh day God finished the work that he had done, and he rested on the seventh day from all the work that he had done. So God blessed the seventh day and hallowed it, because on it God rested from all the work that he had done in creation (Gen 2:2-3).” This seventh day and ‘seven’ are significant in this passage. As God rested on the seventh day from creation, creation rests in the seventh, the sabbatical year. The use of the word ‘seven’ is immediately noticeable in the second unit of this section (8-23) pertaining to the year of jubilee. The jubilee is “seven weeks of years, seven times seven years, so that the period of seven weeks of years gives forty-nine years (25:8).” It is proclaimed “on the tenth day of the seventh month—on the day of atonement,” the most important annual Israelite fast. Seven is thus a significant concept in this passage. In the Old Testament seven is important and reoccurs often: ‘seven’ occurs 287 times; seventh, 98 times; sevenfold, 7 times; 70, 91 times.[9] The repetition in v.8 emphasizes its importance to this passage. Each successive seventh year then the land must observe its year of rest. This is culminated in the seventh seven, the year of jubilee where “you shall eat only what the field itself produces.” Not only is the use of the word ‘seven’ significant to this passage but the use of the word ‘seven’ points to the significance of this passage. It has been claimed that “seven is a most sacred number. Therefore, seven sevens is even more sacred. The forty-ninth year is a sabbatical year; its greater significance is celebrated in the 50th year, the year of Jubilee…which year is to be considered the 50^th year.”[10] The word šhabbat (שַׁבָּת), sabbath, itself, may have originally meant “the seventh day.”[11] *Verses 1-7: The Significance of ‘Sabbath’ as it Relates to the Sabbath of the Land.* The word šhabbat (שַׁבָּת) is important to the understanding of this passage. It occurs 111 times in Old Testament, 47 times in Pentateuch, 25 times in Leviticus.[12] It occurs four times in verses 1-7 of Chapter 25 and further “specific laws governing the use of the use of the Sabbath appear in Exodus 23:12; 31:12-17; Leviticus 19:3; 23:3; and 26:2. In Exodus 34:21 the prohibition of work...is spelled out in terms of ploughing and harvesting.”[13] For the Israelites it was important to keep the sabbath because, as is stated in the Exodus record of the Decalogue, “For in six days the LORD made the heavens and the earth, the sea, and all that is in them, but he rested on the seventh day. Therefore the LORD blessed the sabbath day and made it holy (Exod. 20:11, cf. Gen. 2:3).” And in the Deuteronomy account, where it highlights that neither your animals nor slaves should work either, “remember that you were slaves in Egypt and that the LORD your God brought you out of there with a mighty hand and an outstretched arm. Therefore the LORD your God has commanded you to observe the Sabbath day (Deut 5:15).” “The sabbath commandment, particularly in the Deuteronomic formulation, is the bridge from God to neighbour, in that it deals in some sense with relations to God and responsibilities in the human sphere, and also the centre of the Decalogue”[14] and in Leviticus 25:1 it speaks of the land itself observing the sabbath for the LORD. *Verses 1-7, 8-12: a Sabbath for the Land:* “The terminology "the land itself must observe a sabbath" (v.2) apparently comes from the weekly sabbath that was already in force. The emphasis of the sabbath was the resting. The land "I am going to give you" (notice the proprietorship) will have its rest as well.”[15] The term ‘sabbatical year’ is only found in Lev. 25:2-7, “however this law in Leviticus is clearly an expansion of the simpler earlier fallow law of Exod. 23:10f., and there are other laws concerning what was to take place in that year. Deut 15:1-3 is concerned with the release of debts (or of pledges of debts in the seventh year); slaves (Exod. 21:1-6, Deut 15:12-18); [and the] law [being] read to whole community (31:10-13)”[16] In vv.4-5, it states that the sabbath of complete rest here will be “for the land, a sabbath for the Lord: you shall not sow your field or prune your vineyard. You shall not reap the after-growth of your harvest or gather the grapes of your un-pruned vine: it shall be a year of complete rest for the land.” The language of the ‘after-growth’ and the ‘un-pruned vine’ is then repeated in 8:10 in reference to the year of Jubilee which “shall be holy to you: you shall eat only what the field itself produces (v.12).” Acknowledging that, “verse 5 seems at first to contradict v.4, the solution seems to be that there is to be no normal work of harvest or grape gathering that would involve servants and include storage. It was all right to eat and gather directly from the fields (v.11), but regular harvest work was forbidden.”[17] *Verses 19-22: Faith’s Role in Observing a Sabbath for the Land and the Year of Jubilee:* The average Israelite throughout much of their history was often on the verge of starvation. One thing then that is readily observable here is that faith is required of the Israelites to rely on the LORD as He provides for this sabbath of the land. It is reminiscent of the situation the Israelites experienced in the desert – at the time Moses received the law -when they were not allowed to store Manna but rather required to rely on God daily for their provision (Exod. 16:17-20). The Lord offers his assurance that their faith will be rewarded as recorded in verses 19-22: “The land will yield its fruit, and you will eat your fill and live on it securely. Should you ask, "What shall we eat in the seventh year, if we may not sow or gather in our crop?" I will order my blessing for you in the sixth year, so that it will yield a crop for three years. When you sow in the eighth year, you will be eating from the old crop; until the ninth year, when its produce comes in, you shall eat the old.” This promise in this context is interesting in that the abundance has not yet occurred but one may be assured that this future does exist. It is reminiscent of God’s sign to Moses that it is the LORD speaking to him, in Exodus 3:11-12, and it will only be seen after Moses acts in faith. It is notable that this sign is offered at the same time and place that the Exodus 3 sign is fulfilled. It is evident that, at least at some points in its past, Israel did recognise the sabbatical year’s importance and it is further evident that Israel did practice it at least periodically in its history. The sabbatical year “was probably observed in the pre-exilic period, even though we have no direct evidence for the time of the first temple.”[18] “The observance of the Sabbatical year in Second Temple (late 5^th century BC – AD 70) is attested in Neh. 10:32 and 1 Macc. 6:49,53, and Julius Caesar confirmed the Jews exemption from taxes in the Sabbatical Year…after the Jewish revolt (AD 66-74) and the Bar-Kochba war (AD 132-135), the tax exemption was cancelled.”[19] *Verses 8-16, 23: The Land and The Year of Jubilee:* “Scholars are widely divided in accounting for the origin of the laws on Jubilee. Some assign them to Israel’s earliest days; many others argue that they are a utopian ideal from a visionary cycle of the post-exilic community.”[20] Nonetheless, the observance of the year of jubilee, as expressed in Leviticus 25, has some very important ramifications: every person will return to his property and his family (v.10), one will not sow, reap after-growth, or harvest un-pruned vines (v.11), one should eat only what the field itself produces (v.12), prices for buying and selling are to be set based on proximity to the Jubilee year (vv.14-16). A society that observes this is a community where the captive is regularly set free and a form egalitarian ideals are upheld or at least revisited every half-century. It is notable that the year of Jubilee was proclaimed on the day of atonement (yom kippur, ), “the day appointed for a yearly, general, and perfect expiation for all the sins and uncleaness which might remain, despite the regular sacrifices:”[21] on the day of atonement Israel was reconciled to the LORD. This emphasises its significant. Verse 23 is a key verse to understanding the importance of the year of jubilee, and the sabbatical year for that matter: “The basis of the land laws God gave to Israel is His statement that "the land is mine" (v.23). When Joshua conquered Palestine, the land was divided by sacred lot, not secured by individual military prowess. The people, therefore, could not sell their land. Society was agricultural; and the farms belonged, under God, to the people in perpetuity… [however,] the constant tendency is for the rich to increase their holdings at the expense of the poor. To obviate this danger the Lord instituted a land reform of return to the old homestead every fifty years.”[22] This is significant in that the Lord is actively asserting His ownership over the land. He specifically ordered which tribe’s clans and families would be responsible for which tracks of land and He is demanding that they retain that responsibility. That being said and recognising the emphasis of the command to keep the year of jubilee, it was probably never observed.[23] *Why Keep the ‘Sabbath for the Land’? (25:1-23):* The Holiness Code (Lev. 17-27) begins with the phrase “The LORD spoke to Moses” (17:1) which is repeated many times throughout and serves to emphasize the significance of each self-contained section within the Holiness Code; this direct command from God (25:1) expressed at the beginning of this section on land reform connects the blessings for obeying (25:18-22) and the penalties for disobeying (26:14-46) the LORD to the command of 25:2: “When you enter the land that I am giving you, the land shall observe a sabbath for the Lord (vv.1-2).” This command is one of the requirements for the blessings. One benefit for Israel to fulfil its responsibility to ensure that the land will observe a sabbath is that the Lord will order His “blessing for you in the sixth year, so that it will yield a crop for three years. When you sow in the eighth year, you will be eating from the old crop; until the ninth year, when its produce comes in, you shall eat the old (vv. 21-22).” Another is that the Israelites may “live on the land securely (v.18)” and “the land will yield its fruit, and you will eat your fill and live on it securely (v.19).” Notice that the phrase “live on the land securely” in v.18 is reiterated immediately at the conclusion of v.19. This serves to emphasize the blessing that is attached to observing the LORD’s statutes and ordinances (v.18). It may also be read as a condition and a warning: if they fail to obey the LORD, He is not obligated to let them live on the land for the land is His and the Israelites are but ‘aliens’ and ‘tenants’ (v.23). *Why Keep the ‘Sabbath for the Land’? (Chapter 26):* The LORD reiterates, as recorded in 26:2, that “you shall keep my sabbaths…I am the LORD.” He then offers these blessings in 26:3-13 for observing His commandments faithfully: they will have rain in season, the land shall yield its produce and the trees their fruit, their ‘threshing shall overtake the vintage, and the vintage shall overtake the sowing,’ they will eat their fill of bread, live securely on the land in peace, fear no one, be free from dangerous animals, ‘no sword shall go through your land,’ they will have a surplus of food, they shall pursue and slay their enemies, the LORD will look with favour upon them, make them ‘fruitful and multiply,’ God will dwell among them and will be their God and they His people, He will maintain His covenant with them. If they do not keep all the LORD’s statutes iterated in this section (which begins with the sabbaths as they relate to the land) the Lord states (26:16-33) that He will bring five successive sets of curses on them, each one worse than the previous, in the hope that they will return to Him and obey His commands. If none of this brings the people back to obedience to the LORD, He says (vv.33-35): “…you I will scatter among the nations, and I will unsheathe the sword against you; your land shall be a desolation, and your cities a waste. Then the land shall enjoy its sabbath years as long as it lies desolate, while you are in the land of your enemies; then the land shall rest, and enjoy its sabbath years. As long as it lies desolate, it shall have the rest it did not have on your sabbaths when you were living on it.” *Conclusion:* The land itself shall enjoy its sabbath rest (25:2, 26:34,35) just as man is commanded to (Exod. 20: 8-11, Deut 5:15), and as God did (Exod. 20:11, Gen. 2:3). If the ‘tenants’ (25:23), the Israelites, fail in their responsibility to carry out that duty, then the owner of the Land –who cares about His land- will remove them from it. And He did: “He carried into exile to Babylon the remnant, who escaped from the sword, and they became servants to him and his sons until the kingdom of Persia came to power. The land enjoyed its sabbath rests; all the time of its desolation it rested, until the seventy years were completed in fulfillment of the word of the LORD spoken by Jeremiah. (2 Chronicles 36:20-21).” The land is the LORD’s. He cares about His land and therefore so should we. Return to Index [1] The Expositor's Bible Commentary, Pradis CD-ROM:Leviticus/Exposition of Leviticus/IX. Laws of Land Use (25:1-55), Book Version: 4.0.2 [2] Walter C. Kaiser, “Leviticus,” in The New Interpreter’s Bible, Volume 3, ed. Leander E. Keck. (Nashville, Tenn: Abingdon Press, 1999), 1170 [3] The Expositor's Bible Commentary, Pradis CD-ROM:Leviticus/Introduction to Leviticus/Date and Authorship of Leviticus/The documentary hypothesis of Leviticus, Book Version: 4.0.2 – There is a discussion here of a number of the dating theories of Leviticus [4] The Expositor's Bible Commentary, Pradis CD-ROM:Leviticus/Introduction to Leviticus/Date and Authorship of Leviticus/Other views of Leviticus, Book Version: 4.0.2 [5] Dr. Burke’s address to Studies in the Pentateuch class at Booth College, Winnipeg, MB, Nov. 8, 2006 [6] Richard H. Lowrey, Sabbath and Jubilee (St Louis Missouri: Choice Press, 2000), 57 [7] John E. Hartley, “Leviticus,” in Word Bible Commentary, Volume 4, eds. David A. Hubbard and Glenn W. Barker. (Dallas Texas: Word Books, 1992), 422. [8] Ibid., 424. [9] E.W. Bullinger, Number in Scripture. (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Kregal Publications, 1967), 158. [10] John E. Hartley, p. 434 [11] Gerhard F. Hasel, “Sabbath,” in The Anchor Bible Dictionary: Volume 5, ed. David Noel Freedman, 1^st ed. (New York, New York: Doubleday, 1992), 857. [12] Ibid., 849. [13] Patrick D. Miller Jr., “The Place of the Decalogue in the Old Testament and Its Law,” Interpretation: A Journal of Bible and Theology 43 (1989): 236. [14] Ibid., 233. [15] The Expositor's Bible Commentary, Pradis CD-ROM:Leviticus/Exposition of Leviticus/IX. Laws of Land Use (25:1-55)/A. The Sabbatical Year (25:1-7), Book Version: 4.0.2 [16] Wright, Christopher J.H. “Sabbatical Year,” in The Anchor Bible Dictionary: Volume 5, edited by David Noel Freedman, 1^st ed. (New York, New Nork: Doubleday, 1992),857. [17] The Expositor's Bible Commentary, Pradis CD-ROM:Leviticus/Exposition of Leviticus/IX. Laws of Land Use (25:1-55)/A. The Sabbatical Year (25:1-7), Book Version: 4.0.2 [18] Walter C. Kaiser, p.1170. [19] Lawrence H. Shiffman, “Sabbatical Year,” in Harper’s Bible Dictionary, ed. Paul J. Achtemeier, Th.D., 1^st ed. (New York, New York: Harper & Row, 1985), 889. [20] John E. Hartley, p. 427. [21] Merrill F. Unger, “Festivals,” in Unger’s Bible Dictionary, ed. Merrill F. Unger, 3^rd ed. (Chicago, Ill.: Moody Press, 1981), 358. [22] The Expositor's Bible Commentary, Pradis CD-ROM:Leviticus/Exposition of Leviticus/IX. Laws of Land Use (25:1-55), Book Version: 4.0.2 [23] F. Ross Kinsler, “Leviticus 25,” Interpretation 53, no. 4 (1999): 396.
	Amos 3:1-2: …therefore I will punish you… *Presented to William and Catherine Booth College (Winter 2006)* Hear this word that the Lord has spoken against you, O people of Israel, against the whole family that I brought up out of the land of Egypt: You only have I known of all the families of the earth; therefore I will punish you for all your iniquities - Amos 3:1-2 There are a number of identifiable sections in Amos. Three major ones have been referred to as the Oracles against the Nations, the Words, and the Visions. Karl Moller identifies Chapters 3 and 4 as a part of the Words section.[1] Within this Words section, “it is useful to deal with chapters 3-4 as a unit…even though the elements within the unit are loosely connected with one another, it does have a clear beginning and end.”[2] That being said, Chapter 3 can be designated as a significant subsection within the Words section and verses 1 and 2 of Chapter 3 set the stage for both the sub-section and the section. They also serve to convey a message that is of great significance to Amos’ prophecy. Some have even argued 3:2 to be the theme statement of the entire book.[3] Given this significance, it is these verses - taking into account the theme, textual context, time and life of Amos - which I will examine most closely here. Genre and Theme. Chapter 3 most likely contains both elements of poetry (cf. 3:3-8) and prose (cf. 3:12). However, “the entire oracle may be prose; v. 1 is unquestionably so, and v.2, being purely synthetic in parallelism, if parallelistic at all, has a rather prosaic word order and contains the (prosaic) article ta twice;”[4] therefore it may or may not be prose. Whether prose or poetry, 3:2 stylistically serves as a solid transition to the following verses, having at the very least an appearance of a poetic structure similar to that of 3:3-8. In the opening verses of Chapter 3, the introductory formula of summons to listen (cf. Gen 4:23, 49:2; Exod 18:19; Deut 4:1; 6:4; etc.) denotes an important message is coming. A principle, an issue, a teaching, or a truth is about to be revealed to not only the ten northern tribes of the northern monarchy but to the entire family of the exodus.[5] The book of Amos is a prophetic warning that encompasses both nations but is specifically directed at King Jeroboam II and the leaders of Israel in “an attempt to persuade its hearers or readers to learn from the failure of the prophet’s original audience to respond appropriately to his message.”[6] Chapter 3 introduces the central theme of the book. It focuses on judgement: The aim of Chapter 3 primarily is to underline that Yahweh is indeed going to punish Israel for her sins.[7] As will be shown, this stage is set very well by 3:1-2. Historical Context. Amos was among the first of the prophetic books to be written. It was written “in the days of King Uzziah of Judah and in the days of King Jeroboam son of Joash of Israel, two years before the earthquake (1:1). Because of this detail, historians can date it with some degree of certainty; it dates between 760 and 750 BCE.[8] This was during Asshurnirai’s (753-745 BCE) reign in Assyria. Assyria was struggling to dominate the region;[9] shortly after Amos’ prophecy, Tilglath-Pileser III ascended the Assyrian throne (745 BCE) and by 740 he had fully implemented a policy of military expansion. Israel itself was paying him tribute by 738 and in 722 Samaria fell to the Assyrians under Sargon II.[10] In Israel, circa 750, however, trade and commerce still flourished. Religion was popular and this was a generation from whom the ever-present threat of military attack had been removed; this resulted in a demand for luxury items.[11] However, the rich were getting richer and the poor were becoming poorer.[12] In Amos’ day, Samaria was a city whose great wealth was controlled by and for an upper class few who exploited the masses who were kept in check by fear.[13] Amos, the Person. Amos, himself, was “no prophet, nor a prophet’s son; but…a herdsman, and a dresser of sycamore trees (7:14).” He came from “among the shepherds of Tekoa (1:1).” There is some controversy, however as to what this means. “Amos may have been: (a) a simple Judean shepherd; (b) a well-to-do and prominent citizen, perhaps connected with the Jerusalem Temple; or even (c) a politically important citizen of the northern kingdom. It is recorded in Amos 1:2 that he is from ‘among the shepherd of Tekoa.’”[14] This is interesting also since Tekoa is in the southern kingdom of Judah rather than in the northern kingdom where he prophesied for these two years. It is also interesting that the sycamore-fig did not actually grow in Tekoa. This has led some scholars to believe that Amos was not a native Tekoan, but rather a northern Israelite who had been exiled to Judah.[15] Amos Chapters 1 and 2 After a brief introduction of the prophet Amos (1:1-2), the work begins with a condemnation of the surrounding nations. The phrase that is used to launch into the rebuke is, “Thus says the LORD: for three transgressions of Damascus, and for four, I will not revoke the punishment… (1:3).” This phrase appears again for the condemnation of each of the surrounding nations: Aram, Gaza, Tyre, Edom, the Ammonites. He continues with the same formula in Chapter 2 to rebuke Israel's kindred nations: Moab and Judah. Amos brings this phrase (2:6) and all its implications to bear on Israel. He lists the people’s sins, “you made the Nazirites drink wine, and commanded the prophets, saying, “you shall not prophesy (2:12)” and then what the Lord has done for them as a people, “I destroyed the Amorite before them, whose height was like the height of cedars, and who was as strong as oaks; I destroyed his fruit above, and his roots beneath. Also I brought you up out of the land of Egypt, and led you forty years in the wilderness, to possess the land of the Amorite. And I raised up some of your children to be prophets and some of your youths to be Nazirites (2:9-11).” Then God, through Amos, speaks of the punishment that Israel will receive: “I will press you down in your place, just as a cart presses down when it is full of sheaves. Flight shall perish from the swift, and the strong shall not retain their strength, nor shall the mighty save their lives; those who handle the bow shall not stand, and those who are swift of foot shall not save themselves, nor shall those who ride horses save their lives; and those who are stout of heart among the mighty shall flee away naked in that day (2:13-16).” Amos Chapter 3. It is in this context that Chapter 3 opens with “Hear this word that the Lord has spoken against you.” Karl Moller makes the case that as Chapter 3 is “bracketed by two declarations of divine punishment, each of which is introduced by sim’u (iii 1, 13) and uses the key word pdq to refer to Yahweh’s judgement…that the primary aim of Am. iii is to underline that Yahweh is indeed going to punish Israel for her sins.”[16] Chapter 3 can be seen as a transition between chapters one and two and the rest of the book. It can be broken into three sub-sections: the first states that Amos’ message is from God and that he must proclaim it (3-8); the second asserts that the divine judgement is justified (9-11); the third (12-15) claims that after the devastating destruction, there will be no hope for survival.[17] These sections and the transition are introduced by the key, pivotal verses: verses one and two. Amos 3:1-2. In order to fully understand Chapter 3, verses 1 and 2 need to be comprehended since these verses give the listener/reader the first clear indication of the direction Amos’ prophecy is going to take. Chapter three opens up with “Hear this word that the Lord has spoken against you, O people of Israel, against the whole family that I brought up out of the land of Egypt: You only have I known of all the families of the earth; therefore I will punish you for all your iniquities.” First, as was already stated, it must be understood that this passage is not merely referring to the country of Israel. It is referring to the ‘house of Israel,’ which includes Judah. It however is spoken in Israel as a direct warning for the King. It should be also noted that, the word translated as ‘against’ in verses 1 and 2 is a neutral term in Hebrew and Donald Gowen notes “the verb translated ‘punish’ (paqad) can be used of either favourable or unfavourable activity, depending on the situation.”[18] As such it could be translated as “hold you accountable for” in this context. However, this is the only place where Amos uses the word ‘iniquity’ (awon); “Awon seems to be the darkest of the ‘sin’ words in Hebrew.”[19] It is worth here exploring further the meanings of paqad and awon. paqad, which has been rendered ‘punish’ in both the NIV and NRSV translations, can have various other meanings such as to hold to account, number, reckon, visit, or appoint; however, “the basic meaning is to exercise oversight over a subordinate, either in the form of inspecting or of taking action to cause a considerable change in the circumstances of the subordinate, either for the better or for the worse. It has been said of this verb, which occurs more than 300 times in the OT: ‘there is probably no other Hebrew verb that has caused translators as much trouble.”[20] The fact that there is ambiguity in the interpretation of paqad is significant here because when read in conjunction with the neutral ‘against,’ the hearer or reader of these words may or may have not been alerted to this prophecy’s seriousness, but it would have necessarily provoked a greater level of attention. Israel has heard many prophecies to this point in its history concerning its destruction, all of which have ended in Israel’s redemption. As these words in 3:2 were being spoken, it would become evident that one should not necessarily assign so quickly a benevolent or -more accurately and typically- a restorative interpretation here to paqad, the chapter, or the prophecy of Amos. This would be an early clue (though not an unmistakeable one by any means) that the anticipated redemption may not be present in Amos’ message; this prophecy will not necessarily end well for Israel and, as the impact of these verses is fully appreciated or at least comprehended, this would certainly be shocking to the audience. Another key term for understanding the full implications for these verses, this chapter, and Amos’ prophesy, in light of the aforementioned, is awon, which is often rendered ‘sin’ or ‘iniquity.’ It is a profoundly religious term that is usually used to refer to moral guilt or iniquity before God that comes from deliberate wrongdoing. It can also refer to punishment, which is consequent upon sin.[21] It is rarely used to refer to guilt before a human (cf. 1 Sam. 20:1; 8 25:24). ‘Metonymic usages of the term illustrate clearly the relationship in Hebrew thought between ‘sin’ and resultant ‘guilt’ and ‘punishment,’ since awon may denote any of these three senses (or all three meanings) in a single passage.[22] Also important to understand is the word yada. The verb yd^c -‘to perceive, know’ - encompasses a broad semantic scope in its Old Testament usage. It can refer to ‘sensory awareness of objects and circumstances in one’s environment attained through involvement with them and through the information of others;’ describe results of investigation; or ‘the knowledge that results from the realization, experience, and perception that one can learn and transmit;’ refer to the capacity for ethical decision or shape one’s life through autonomous decision; sexual experience; or practical wisdom.[23] In 3:2, yada is used to indicate the special relationship between Yahweh and Israel or its election to service.[24] “The statement ‘you only have I chosen [yada, ‘known’] of all the families of the earth’ establishes Israel’s elective privilege. The word yada bears a special sense of intimacy. Jeremiah 1:5 uses yada in a similar way, describing God’s knowing and consecrating Jeremiah even before his birth. Thus the word connotes more than simple awareness or acknowledgment. It includes the idea of God’s sovereign activity whereby the object of that knowledge is set apart or chosen for a divine purpose. Such was the case with Israel.”[25] “In Amos 3:2, one should not overlook the detrimental consequence – surprising for people – which is linked here to the intimate, exclusive relationship (contested altogether in Amos 9:7) between Yahweh and Israel in which the people imagines itself secure: Israel will also be held accountable in an exceptional manner for its guilt.”[26] I find it very interesting that, even in the context of listing the punishments of all the surrounding nations that did not have the favoured status of Israel in the Lord's eyes, Amos states (3:2), “you only have I known of all the families of the earth; therefore I will punish you for all your iniquities.” It caused me to wonder, were not Aram, Gaza, Tyre, Edom, and the Ammonites, whom He did not know in this same sense, all being punished for their iniquities as well? As Israel seems to be receiving the same punishment as her neighbours, why would its special relationship to Yahweh be noted in this context? The Sinai tradition made it clear that “the consequences of rejecting the relationship established by God were a most serious matter. ‘Therefore I will punish you for all your iniquities’ (v.2). This would not seem to be a radically new idea. Amos’ words show that the popular religion of his day, however, seems to have emphasized the election concept.”[27] Therefore this statement must have aroused the audience’s curiosity and attracted attention.[28] It is precisely because of Israel’s favoured status that it will be punished as severely as is laid out in the rest of the book. As they are the elect, having a special covenant relationship with God and are ‘known of all the families of the earth,’ they receive the direct and the longest rebuke of the nations. “Amos affirmed the historical election of Israel (3:2). But he inveighed against the perverted concept of election popularly held in his day - that is, the irrevocable commitment of Yahweh to the nation. Their election alone did not guarantee national blessing, for the sovereign Lord had promised that they would be his ‘treasured possession’ if they obeyed him and kept his covenant (Exod 19:5). Amos, more than any other prophet, urged the responsibility of elective privilege.”[29] How then does this fit into the context of the preceding verses in Chapter 2: 6-16? This is where the oracle against Israel actually begins. Is there anything special about this section (3:1-2) given that context? Oracles against Israel are not by any means unheard of in Biblical literature (cf. Lamentations 4; Ezekiel 21,22; Joel 1-2:10). God calls Israel to repentance through his prophets many times in the Hebrew Bible. There are instances of Israel being called to task and then the Lord relenting (cf. Lamentations 4:22; Ezekiel 34; Joel 2:18ff) precisely because He is their God and they are His people. For an audience that has heard this same prophetic formula before, 2:6 through 3:1 must not have stood out particularly from the aforementioned prophecies of which they would have been familiar. The beginning of 3:2 may have caused them to anticipate the happy ending to which they had become accustomed of God showing mercy precisely because ‘you only have I known of all the families of the earth.’ Up to this point in the book, this message must have sounded very familiar to them. It is easy to not pay too close attention to a story when you believe that you know the ending, particularly when you are convinced that everything will be all right. The ‘therefore’ to the listener must have elicited a sense of complacency then for this word would seem to signify the end of the bad news and the beginning of the blessings and promises that will be fulfilled when Israel does eventually return to Yahweh. This is not what happens though. What happens is that Israel’s condemnation is prolonged and even intensifies. This must have caused the listener to take note. It would compel those hearing to consider the earlier warning of 2:6 with a renewed interest. It was here that Israel was first addressed in exactly the same way as her rivals, Aram, Gaza, Tyre, Edom, and the Ammonites, with the phrase ‘for three sins of Israel, even for four, I will not turn back my wrath.’ What, if a move to a more comforting message was expected in 3:2, must have seemed purely formulaic at first, would now serve to emphasize to the listener that the message is that their ‘election’ will not save them from God’s wrath anymore that their rivals’ non-election. 3:2b can mean that either Israel’s ‘election’ does not equal protection from God’s wrath or that its election and protection are conditional upon Israel upholding its part of the covenantal relationship. Either way, Israel’s election in and of itself is no protection from the wrath of God (cf. Romans 2). The Conclusion in Greater Context of Chapter 3 and the Book of Amos. This conclusion is born out in the rest of the chapter. There is a proclamation for Ashod of the Philistines and for Egypt to “assemble yourselves on Mount Samaria, and see what great tumults are within it, and what oppressions are in its midst (3:9).” As the fate of the other nations is a warning to Israel (Chapters 1,2), so Israel is a warning to the other nations. The implication is that these ancient adversaries of Israel would not miss the point of the prophecy; “even the heathen peoples, such as the Philistines and the Egyptians would confirm the need for divine judgement.”[30] The Lord will punish Israel: “An adversary shall surround the land, and strip you of your defence; and your strongholds shall be plundered” (3:11) and your “great houses shall come to and end” (3:15). Thus Chapter 3 concludes the same way it began, in 3:1-2, with judgement – and more, a final ‘end’ judgement. Israel must prepare to meet the Lord, the God of Hosts who “forms the mountains, creates the wind, reveals his thoughts to mortals, makes the morning darkness, and treads on the heights of the earth.” (4:13). God has done so much for them, they have not repented and as a result, the worst is yet to come. “Amos knows the next act will be the death of Israel. He gives no hint that he knows of resurrection to follow.”[31] “There is no future for the nation of Israel,”[32] for ‘you only have I known of all the families of the earth; therefore I will punish you for all your iniquities.’ As much as I would like to conclude my thoughts here, I cannot. I have to acknowledge the tension that stands at the conclusion of Amos. Scholars are not in complete agreement. There are those who argue that after many chapters of judgement, Chapter 9 points to restoration: “I will restore the fortunes of my people Israel, and they shall rebuild the ruined cities and inhabit them; they shall plant vineyards and drink their wine, and they shall make gardens and eat their fruit. I will plant them upon their land, and they shall never again be plucked up out of the land that I have given them, says the Lord your God (9:14-15).” While this may accurately reflect Amos’ message, it is most definitely in tension with the rest of the prophecy and certainly conflicts with the intent expressed in Chapter 3 as introduced by its first and second verses, which we have examined here. That tension being acknowledged, the conclusion of the book of Amos is seemingly one of restoration. Thomas E. McComiskey states that, “To deny a message of hope in Amos removes him from the mainstream of eighth-century prophetic thought, where the concept of doom is often followed by hope (Isa 3:1-4:1; cf. 4:2-6; 8:16-22; cf. 9:1-7; Mic 2:1-11; cf. 2:12-13; 5:1; cf. 5:2-4).”[33] This is an important teaching point. Whatever the intent of the prophet himself, the book of Amos ends on a note of apparent restoration or reconciliation. Israel was faithless but God is faithful and they can be restored. This is an important theological notion. We can be reconciled with God. Christ died for that purpose. Christ has ushered in the new covenant (cf. Lk 22:20; 1 Cor 11:25; 2 Cor 3:6; Heb 8, 9, 12:24), which is written on our hearts (Jer 31:31-34; Ro 2); therefore, repentance (2:4), blessing (Gen 12:3), justification (2:13), and righteousness (2:13) await those ‘doers of the law’ which is now written on their hearts.[34] In Christ we are a new creation (2 Cor 5:17). So well verses one and two of chapter three and the prophet himself may have meant to convey an end to the covenant relationship (cf. Amos 3:15), the book of Amos does point to the hope of a future restoration. Return to Index [1] Karl Moller. “‘Hear This Word Against You’: a Fresh Look at the Arrangement and the Rhetorical Strategy of the Book of Amos,” Vetus Testamentum 50, no. 4 (2000): 500. [2] Donald E. Gowan, Amos. (NIB 7. Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon Press, 1996), 368. [3] but cf. Donald E. Gowan, 369, for a different opinion. At the least, however, it is a significant verse that certainly embodies the major thrust of the prophecy. Taken in the context of the rest of chapter 3 (particularly 3:12), I think the argument that it addresses a key component of the theme of Amos is valid and as such its key importance should not be overlooked. [4] Douglas Stuart, Amos. (Word Biblical Commentary 31. Waco, Texas: Word Books, 1987), 321. [5] Ibid. [6] Karl Moller. “‘Hear This Word Against You’: a Fresh Look at the Arrangement and the Rhetorical Strategy of the Book of Amos,” Vetus Testamentum 50, no. 4 (2000): 516. [7] Ibid., 502. [8] Ibid., 343. [9] Willy Schottroff, “The Prophet Amos: A Socio-Historical Assessment of His Ministry.” In God of the Lowly: Socio-Historical Interpretations of the Bible, edited by Willy Schottroff and Wolfgang Stegemann. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1984. [10] Donald E. Gowan, p. 339. [11] Roland Kenneth Harrison. Introduction to the Old Testament. (Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1977), 885. [12] John H. Tullock. The Old Testament Story, 7^th ed. (Revised by M. McEntire; Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2006), 192. [13] Douglas Stuart. p. 330. [14] Donald E. Gowan, p. 340. [15] Roland Kenneth Harrison. p. 884. [16] Karl Moller, p. 502. [17] Ibid., p. 506. [18] Donald E. Gowan, p. 369. [19] Ibid. [20] Victor P. Hamilton, “paqad” in The Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament: Volume 2 ed. R. Laird Harris, 2^nd ed. (Chicago, Ill.: Moody Press, 1981), 731. [21] BA Milne and J Murray, “Sin,” in New Bible Dictionary. ed. JD Douglas. 3^rd ed. (Downers Grove, Illinois, Intervarsity Press, 1996), 1105. [22] Robin C. Cover, “Sin, Sinners (Old Testament),” in The Anchor Bible Dictionary, Volume 6. ed. David Noel Freedman, 1^st ed. (New York, New York: Doubleday, 1992), 32. [23] Willy Schottroff, “To Perceive, To Know,” in Theological Lexicon of the Old Testament, Volume 3 eds. Ernst Jenni and Claus Westermann (Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Publishers, 1997), 511-514. [24] G. Johannes Botterweck. “yada” in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Volume 5.– eds. G. Johannes Botterweck and Helmer Ringgren Translated by David Green. (Grand Rapids Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1986), 468. [25] Thomas E. McComiskey, The Expositor's Bible Commentary. Pradis CD-ROM:Amos/Exposition of Amos/III. The Prophetic Oracles (1:3-6:14)/B. Oracles of Judgment Against Israel (2:6-6:14)/2. A lesson based on cause and effect (3:1-12), Book Version: 4.0.2 [26] Willy Schottroff, “To Perceive, To Know,” p. 516. [27] Donald E. Gowan, p. 369. [28] Karl Moller, p. 502. [29] Thomas E. McComiskey, The Expositor's Bible Commentary, Pradis CD-ROM:Amos/Introduction to Amos/Theological Values of Amos/The doctrine of election in Amos, Book Version: 4.0.2 [30] Karl Moller, p. 505. [31] Donald E. Gowan, p. 383. [32] Ibid., 347. [33] Thomas E. McComiskey, The Expositor's Bible Commentary, Pradis CD-ROM:Amos/Introduction to Amos/Unity of Amos, Book Version: 4.0.2 [34] See also Acts 15:12-21, where Amos Chapter 9 is quoted in relationship specifically to the Gentiles.
	*Interpretive Study of Amos 3-4* *Prepared for William and Catherine Booth College (January 2006)* Introduction. Chapters three and four of Amos, while part of a greater whole, can be said to stand alone. Karl Moller identifies three major sections of Amos and he refers to these chapters as being apart of the “so-called ‘words’” section.[1]The other sections he identifies are the ‘Oracles against the nations’ and the ‘visions’ sections.[2] Within the words section, “it is useful to deal with chap.s 3-4 as a unit.”[3] “Even though the elements within the unit are loosely connected with one another, it does have a clear beginning and end.”[4] *Book of Amos.* Amos is a prophetic work. Amos 3-4 is a prophesy against Israel. It functions as a poem in places (cf. 3:3-8), prose in places and a warning throughout. The author’s intention appears to be to point out that God will punish Israel because “You only have I known of all the families of the earth (3:2)” and because the Israelite leaders are as “cows of Bashan who are on Mount Samaria, who oppress the poor, who crush the needy. (4:1)” It is a part of a greater context of condemnation for the nation of Israel. It should be noted that in chapter nine, however, after this long condemnation, restoration and security are offered: “I will restore the fortunes of my people Israel, and they shall rebuild the ruined cities and inhabit them; they shall plant vineyards and drink their wine, and they shall make gardens and eat their fruit. I will plant them upon their land, and they shall never again be plucked up out of the land that I have given them, says the Lord your God” (Amos 9:14-15). Context: Setting. Chapters three and four of the book of Amos are very interesting. They are obviously set in the greater context of the Christian Bible, the Old Testament, and the books of the prophets. Apparently Amos was among the first of the books written. The book of Amos was written “in the days of King Uzziah of Judah and in the days of King Jeroboam son of Joash of Israel, two years before the earthquake” (1:1). Because of this detail, historians can date it with some degree of certainty; it dates between 760 and 750 BCE.[5] It was written at a time when the dominant world power was a rising Assyria.[6] Greater Historical Context. Asshurnirai (753-745 BCE) was the King of Assyria. It was poised to dominate the entire region; shortly after Amos’ prophecy was given, Tilglath-pileser III ascended the Assyrian throne (745 BCE) and by 740 he had fully implemented a policy of military expansion. Israel itself was paying tribute to him by 738 and in 722 the capital of Israel, Samaria, fell to the Assyrians under Sargon II[7]. Elsewhere in the ancient world at this time, Egypt under Sheshank IV had grown very weak. It was divided into small states and was subject to the Shopians.[8] It was in 750 that Egypt fell to Cush. Carthage was still on the rise in the western Mediterranean, Rome was founded in 753, the Olympics had begun (776 in Athens) by then, and Babylonian history is strangely silent during this time.[9] Context: Local Political Setting. In Israel, circa 750, everything seemed to be going well. Trade and commerce flourished. Religion was popular and this was “a generation from whom the ever-present threat of military attack had been removed;”[10] this “resulted in a demand for luxury items.”[11] However, “the rich were getting richer and the poor were becoming poorer.”[12] “Samaria in Amos’ day was a city whose great wealth was controlled by and for an upper-class few and in which the exploited masses were kept in check by fear.”[13] Context: Amos’ Personal Background. Amos, himself, was “no prophet, nor a prophet's son; but…a herdsman, and a dresser of sycamore trees” (7:14). He came from “among the shepherds of Tekoa” (1:1). There is some controversy, however as to what this means. “Amos may have been: (a) a simple Judean shepherd; (b) a well-to-do and prominent citizen, perhaps connected with the Jerusalem Temple; or even (c) a politically important citizen of the northern kingdom. It is recorded in Amos 1:2 that he is from “among the shepherd of Tekoa.”[14] This is interesting also since Tekoa is in the southern kingdom of Judah rather than in the northern kingdom where he prophesied for these two years. Tekoa is south of Jerusalem and northwest of Hebron. It was where the women were who, at the bequest of Joab, interceded for Absolam (2Sam. 14:2-9) prior to his revolt and, after its destruction, it was rebuilt by King Rehoboam (2Chr. 11:6). It is also interesting that the sycamore-fig did not actually grow in Tekoa. This led some “scholars to infer that Amos was not a native Tekoan, but rather a northern Israelite who had gone into exile in Judah.”[15] Chapters 3-4: Genre and Theme. Amos 3-4 is a prophetic work that contains both elements of poetry (cf. 3:3-8) and prose. The book of Amos is directed at King Uzziah and the leaders of Israel. It is “an attempt to persuade its hearers or readers to learn from the failure of the prophet’s original audience to respond appropriately to his message.”[16] Chapters three and four focus on judgement for Israel. “The primary aim of Chapter 3 is to underline that Yahweh is indeed going to punish Israel for her sins.”[17] Chapter three opens up with the phrase "Hear this word that the Lord has spoken against you," It is plain to see that the following isn't going to be an endorsement of Israel but rather a rebuke for its actions. This is particularly obvious when placed in the context of chapters one and two. Amos 1 After a brief introduction of the prophet Amos (1:1-2), he begins with a condemnation of the surrounding nations. The phrase that is used to launch into the rebuke is, "Thus says the LORD: for three transgressions of Damascus, and for four, I will not revoke the punishment… (1:3)" This phrase appears again for the condemnation of each of the surrounding nations: Aram, Gaza, Tyre, Edom, the Ammonites. Amos 2 He continues with the same formula to rebuke Israel's kindred nations: Moab and Judah. Amos brings this phrase (2:6) and all its implications to bear on Israel. He lists the people's sins: “you made the Nazirites drink wine, and commanded the prophets, saying, "you shall not prophesy" (2:12) and then what the Lord has done for them as a people: “I destroyed the Amorite before them, whose height was like the height of cedars, and who was as strong as oaks; I destroyed his fruit above, and his roots beneath. Also I brought you up out of the land of Egypt, and led you forty years in the wilderness, to possess the land of the Amorite. And I raised up some of your children to be prophets and some of your youths to be Nazirites” (2:9-11). Then God, through Amos, speaks of the punishment that Israel will receive: “I will press you down in your place, just as a cart presses down when it is full of sheaves. Flight shall perish from the swift, and the strong shall not retain their strength, nor shall the mighty save their lives; those who handle the bow shall not stand, and those who are swift of foot shall not save themselves, nor shall those who ride horses save their lives; and those who are stout of heart among the mighty shall flee away naked in that day” (2:13-16). *Amos 3: sections.* It is in this context that Chapter 3 opens with "Hear this word that the Lord has spoken against you". Karl Moller makes the case that as chapter three is “bracketed by two declarations of divine punishment, each of which is introduced by sim’u (iii 1, 13) and uses the key word pdq to refer to Yahweh’s judgement…that the primary aim of Am. iii is to underline that Yahweh is indeed going to punish Israel for her sins.”[18] The NIB notes that “the verb translated ‘punish’ (paqad) can be used of either favourable or unfavourable activity, depending on the situation.”[19] As such it could be translated as “hold you accountable for” in this context. This, however, is the only place where Amos uses the word ‘iniquity’ (awon); “Awon seems to be the darkest of the ‘sin’ words in Hebrew.”[20] Chapter 3, following the introductory verses, can be broken into three sub-sections: the first states that Amos’ message is from God and that he must proclaim it (3-8); the second asserts that the divine judgement is justified (9-11); the third claims that after the devastating destruction, there will be no hope for survival.[21] *Amos 3:1-2.* I find it very interesting that, even in the context of listing the punishments of all the surrounding nations, that did not have the favoured status of Israel in the Lord's eyes, Amos states (3:2), "you only have I known of all the families of the earth; therefore I will punish you for all your iniquities." It caused me to wonder, were not Aram, Gaza, Tyre, Edom, and the Ammonites, whom He did not know in the same sense, all being punished for their iniquities as well? The Sinai tradition made it clear that “the consequences of rejecting the relationship established by God were a most serious matter. ‘Therefore I will punish you for all your iniquities’ (v.2). This would not seem to be a radically new idea. Amos’ words show that the popular religion of his day, however, seems to have emphasized the election concept.”[22] Therefore this “statement must have aroused the audience’s curiosity and attracted attention.”[23] It is precisely because of Israel’s favoured status that it will be punished as severely as is laid out in the rest of the book. Amos 3:3-8 Immediately following this statement in 3:2, Amos launches into a series of Rhetorical questions (vv3-8)[24]: Do two walk together unless they have made an appointment? Does a lion roar in the forest, when it has no prey? Does a young lion cry out from its den, if it has caught nothing? Does a bird fall into a snare on the earth, when there is no trap for it? Does a snare spring up from the ground, when it has taken nothing? Is a trumpet blown in a city, and the people are not afraid? Does disaster befall a city, unless the Lord has done it? Surely the Lord God does nothing, without revealing his secret to his servants the prophets. The lion has roared; who will not fear? The Lord God has spoken; who can but prophesy? One of the things to come to my attention as I was reading this section was that the second and third questions relate to a lion; the fourth and fifth mention a snare and the six and seventh mention a city. This is an example of a poetic linkage. The eighth question refers back to a lion of the second and third questions. “This passage is obviously didactic”[25] and points out the necessity and legitimacy of the prophecy. Amos asks rhetorically, “the Lord God has spoken; who can but prophesy?”(3:8). “His reaction to Yahweh’s revelation was inevitable and proper: he repeated it.”[26] He builds upon the statement that just as the Lord has not spared the surrounding nations for their actions, he will not spare Israel (3:2). He makes the very strong point about the sovereign actions of the Lord in this section. He asks rhetorically, “Does disaster befall a city, unless the Lord has done it?” (3:6) And Amos reminds Israel that “surely the Lord God does nothing, without revealing his secret to his servants the prophets”(3:7). As was stated at the beginning of this chapter, he is the Lord’s prophet and this is “the word that the Lord has spoken against you, O people of Israel” (3:1). *Amos 3:9-15.* The next paragraph division in the NRSV contains three oracles against Samaria (3:9-11, 3:12, 3:13-15); Douglas Stuart considers Amos 4:1-3 as part of the same passage and as such records four oracles in this section.[27] He points to six reasons why these four subsections are a part of an integrated whole: 1) They each depict the range of Samaria’s infidelity to the covenant through her ‘degenerate wealthy style’ 2) Each concludes with a graphic Pentateuchial covenant curse. 3) Each directly quotes Yahweh. 4) Each assumes Samaria’s military defeat. 5) Each mocks ‘Samaria’s complacent high living’. 6) ‘Each is composed in parallelistic prose.’[28] The paragraph beginning at 3:9 opens with a proclamation for Ashod of the Philistines and for Egypt to "assemble yourselves on Mount Samaria, and see what great tumults are within it, and what oppressions are in its midst." (3:9) As the fate of the other nations is a warning to Israel, (Chapters 1,2) so Israel is a warning to the other nations. The implication is that these ancient adversaries of Israel would not miss the point of the prophecy; “even the heathen peoples, such as the Philistines and the Egyptians would confirm the need for divine judgement.”[29] The Lord will punish Israel: “An adversary shall surround the land, and strip you of your defence; and your strongholds shall be plundered” (3:11) and your “great houses shall come to and end” (3:15). Thus Chapter 3 concludes the same way it began, with judgement. *Amos 4:1-3.* Recognising that verses 1-3 of Chapter 4 share characteristics with the preceding sections, it does open with the phrase “hear this word” which serves to draw our attention back for a new thought and set itself apart as a separate unit within the text. Amos here calls those who oppress the poor, “cows of Bashan.” Bashan was known for its oak forests (cf. Isaiah 2:13; Ezekiel 27:6; Zechariah 11:2) and, as is drawn on here, its cattle (Deuteronomy 32:14; Psalms 22:12; Ezekiel 39:8; Micah 7:14). This unit “attacks the haughty women of Samaria.”[30] The fact that the cows are on Mt. Samaria (Israel’s capital city) in this prophecy, lead me to infer that in fact he is calling the leaders of Israel cows. I am not alone in this initial interpretation as “Targum, Jerome, Calvin, and some modern scholars take it to be a feminine metaphor applied either to the leaders of the kingdom or to the people in general.”[31] However, “most interpreters…understand ‘cows of Bashan’ to be a reference to the elite women of Samaria who lived in opulent splendour.”[32] “Such women are guilty of irresponsibility in two social directions: towards inferiors and toward superiors.”[33] They oppress the poor and rule over “their masters i.e., husbands, they demand the household service that, according to normal practice, they themselves should be providing.”[34] In the first paragraph of chapter four, it is stated explicitly why Israel is to be punished and what shall be its punishment. They “oppress the poor, who crush the needy, who say to their husbands, ‘Bring something to drink!’” (4:1) so, “the Lord God has sworn by his holiness: The time is surely coming upon you, when they shall take you away with hooks, even the last of you with fishhooks. Through breaches in the wall you shall leave, each one straight ahead; and you shall be flung out into Harmon” (4:2-3). The mention of the breaches in the walls seems to refer to the fact that the walls of Samaria itself will be breached and that its inhabitants will be taken away “even the last of you with fishhooks” (4:2). Amos 4:4-13 Some of the other sub-sections of Chapter 4 include verses 4-5, 6-11, and 12-13 (or 12 and 13). “The passage mixes prose and poetry. Vv 4-5, 13 are clearly poetic. Vv 9 and 12 might be poetic…the remainder of the passage appears to be prose.”[35] That being said, an interconnectedness can certainly be shown. The whole section addresses Israel. Throughout the passage, Yahweh is the speaker. The focus of the oracle is an encounter with Yahweh. The fulfilled curses mentioned require a basis for punishment.[36] “The surprisingly consistent use of ‘oracle of Yahweh’ or similar formula to conclude the successive sections (vv 5,6,8,9,10,11) and the parallel impact of the mention of the divine name at the end of v 13 ties together the various parts.”[37] Amos 4:4-5 Through sarcasm and Amos, the Lord mentions more of Israel’s sins: “Come to Bethel—and transgress; to Gilgal—and multiply transgression; bring your sacrifices every morning, your tithes every three days; bring a thank offering of leavened bread, and proclaim freewill offerings, publish them; for so you love to do, O people of Israel! says the Lord God.” (4:4,5) “Israel thinks that religion as usual will solve everything”[38] but the Lord does not want sacrifice without justice. Stuart sees these verses as the opening of a section (4:4-13) which he entitles, “past punishments only a sampling.”[39] Amos 4:6-11 The final paragraph (NRSV) in Chapter 4 begins with a reminder of curses (4:6-11) that the Lord has fulfilled. “The curse types of the present oracle increase progressively in severity, from famine…to miraculous divine destruction.”[40] He reminds Israel of times of famine when the Lord “gave you cleanness of teeth in all your cities, and lack of bread in all your places, yet you did not return to me, says the Lord. And I also withheld the rain from you when there were still three months to the harvest; I would send rain on one city, and send no rain on another city; one field would be rained upon, and the field on which it did not rain withered. (6-7)” Drought did not provoke repentance. The Lord struck Israel with blight and mildew, laid waste their vineyards and gardens, sent locusts and pestilence, killed its men and carried away their horses. Plagues and war did not produce repentance. God even “overthrew some of you, as when God overthrew Sodom and Gomorrah, and you were like a brand snatched from the fire” (4:11). “The most extreme historical destruction known to ancient Israelites was the total obliteration of the cities of the plain (Gen. 19).”[41] *Amos 4:12-13.* He did all this but still Israel did not return to Him. So now it must prepare to meet the Lord, the God of Hosts who “forms the mountains, creates the wind, reveals his thoughts to mortals, makes the morning darkness, and treads on the heights of the earth.” (4:13). The hymn[42] that concludes chapter four – the “doxology as it is often called, …closely connects Yahweh’s sovereignty over natural forces with his sovereignty over humans.”[43] God has done so much for them and they have not repented and as a result, the worst is yet to come. “Amos knows the next act will be the death of Israel. He gives no hint that he knows of resurrection to follow.”[44] “There is no future for the nation of Israel.”[45] *Conclusion.* Chapters 3-4 do need to be read, however, in the context in which it is placed: the book of Amos and the Bible. Though all scholars are not in agreement,[46] after many chapters of judgement, Chapter 9 seems to point to a restoration: “I will restore the fortunes of my people Israel, and they shall rebuild the ruined cities and inhabit them; they shall plant vineyards and drink their wine, and they shall make gardens and eat their fruit. I will plant them upon their land, and they shall never again be plucked up out of the land that I have given them, says the Lord your God” (9:14-15). The Lord is powerful; He is also gracious. [1] Karl Moller. “‘Hear This Word Against You’: a Fresh Look at the Arrangement and the Rhetorical Strategy of the Book of Amos,” Vetus Testamentum 50, no. 4 (2000): 500. [2] Ibid. [3] Donald E. Gowan, Amos. (TNIB 7. Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon Press, 1996), 368 [4] Ibid. [5] Ibid., 343. [6] Will Durant. Our Oriental Heritage. (New York, NY: Simon and Schuster, 1935), 267. [7] Donald E. Gowan, Amos. (TNIB 7. Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon Press, 1996), 339. [8] The Timechart of Biblical History. (Chippenham, England: The Third Millennium Press, 2003), 1. [9] Ibid. [10] Roland Kenneth Harrison. Introduction to the Old Testament. (Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1977), 885. [11] Ibid. [12] John H. Tullock. The Old Testament Story, 7^th ed. (Revised by M. McEntire; Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2006), 192. [13] Douglas Stuart. Amos. (WBC 31: Waco, Texas: Word Books, 1987), 330. [14] Donald E. Gowan, Amos. (TNIB 7. Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon Press, 1996), 340. [15] Roland Kenneth Harrison. Introduction to the Old Testament. (Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1977), 884. [16] Karl Moller. “‘Hear This Word Against You’: a Fresh Look at the Arrangement and the Rhetorical Strategy of the Book of Amos,” Vetus Testamentum 50, no. 4 (2000): 516. [17] Ibid., 502. [18] Ibid. [19] Donald E. Gowan, Amos. (TNIB 7. Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon Press, 1996), 369. [20] Ibid. [21] Karl Moller. “‘Hear This Word Against You’: a Fresh Look at the Arrangement and the Rhetorical Strategy of the Book of Amos,” Vetus Testamentum 50, no. 4 (2000): 506. [22] Donald E. Gowan, Amos. (TNIB 7. Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon Press, 1996), 369. [23] Karl Moller. “‘Hear This Word Against You’: a Fresh Look at the Arrangement and the Rhetorical Strategy of the Book of Amos,” Vetus Testamentum 50, no. 4 (2000): 502. [24] Douglas Stuart. Amos. (WBC 31: Waco, Texas: Word Books, 1987), 322. Douglas Stuart calls this sub-section ‘a list of inseparables’ [25] Douglas Stuart. Amos. (WBC 31: Waco, Texas: Word Books, 1987), 324. [26] Ibid., 326. [27] Ibid., 329 [28] Ibid. [29] Karl Moller. “‘Hear This Word Against You’: a Fresh Look at the Arrangement and the Rhetorical Strategy of the Book of Amos,” Vetus Testamentum 50, no. 4 (2000): 505. [30] Douglas Stuart. Amos. (WBC 31: Waco, Texas: Word Books, 1987), 332. [31] Donald E. Gowan, Amos. (TNIB 7. Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon Press, 1996), 376. [32] Ibid. [33] Douglas Stuart. Amos. (WBC 31: Waco, Texas: Word Books, 1987), 332 [34] Ibid., 332. [35] Douglas Stuart. Amos. (WBC 31: Waco, Texas: Word Books, 1987), 337. [36] Ibid., 336. [37] Ibid. [38] Donald E. Gowan, Amos. (TNIB 7. Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon Press, 1996), 368. [39] Douglas Stuart. Amos. (WBC 31: Waco, Texas: Word Books, 1987), 333. [40] Ibid., 339. [41] Douglas Stuart. Amos. (WBC 31: Waco, Texas: Word Books, 1987), 338. [42] Donald E. Gowan, Amos. (TNIB 7. Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon Press, 1996), 345. [43] Douglas Stuart. Amos. (WBC 31: Waco, Texas: Word Books, 1987), 340. [44] Donald E. Gowan, Amos. (TNIB 7. Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon Press, 1996), 383. [45] Ibid., 347. [46] Ibid., 383.

Amos, the Person.

Amos Chapters 1 and 2

Introduction.

Context: Setting.

Greater Historical Context.

Context: Local Political Setting.

Context: Amos’ Personal Background.

Chapters 3-4: Genre and Theme.

Amos 1

Amos 2

Amos 3:3-8

Amos 4:4-13

Amos 4:4-5

Amos 4:6-11